by Matthew Jones

A leasing agent receives a call from a prospective renter looking for an apartment.  The caller is using what would be described as non-standard English – perhaps a vernacular that could be described as stereotypically African-American.  The caller is told that no apartments are available.  Minutes later, another call comes in – this time, the caller is using Standard English.  An appointment is set to see an apartment for rent.

For many of us, it comes as no surprise to find that this is an actual scenario used in an actual study on linguistic discrimination.  The lesson: language matters.  How we use language to convey our needs, thoughts and opinions affects how those needs and opinions are processed and responded to.

Dr. John Baugh (pronounced “Baw”), Professor of Education and Linguistics, Stanford University, is no stranger to the idea of that language and dialect affect our perceptions.  In fact, he is a pioneer in the field and a leading researcher who has dedicated more than 20 years to studying language and its effect on society.

“In the work I do with language, I examine the function of language in society, and look at the social stratification across income levels – from the poorest to the wealthiest communities,” explained Dr. Baugh.

In addition to teaching at Stanford, Dr. Baugh is an advisor to the National Foundation for Teaching Entrepreneurship – an organization that reaches out to low-income communities to help aspiring entrepreneurs learn how to write business plans, secure loans and other functions critical to building a profitable enterprise.

Dr. Baugh’s primary interest in researching language is finding ways to enhance the quality, efficiency and accuracy (of communications) between people who have different linguistic backgrounds. 

Historically, American society has been slow to embrace differences.  Even today, wherever linguistic differences exist, walls of separation also exist.  “(Linguistic differences) reinforce social differences,” explained Dr. Baugh.  “There are engrained, negative attitudes toward African American Vernacular English (AAVE), as well as Latino and Asian dialects.”

Throughout his career, Dr. Baugh has conducted numerous studies and experiments to measure society’s reaction to linguistic differences.  His studies have uncovered facts and tendencies that confirm the suspicions of some and cause embarrassment for others.

Yes, Language and Ethnicity Matter

Ethnic language can be a source of pride or hurt depending on an ethnic group’s standing within the hierarchy of American society.  Jewish comedians have a long tradition of incorporating Yiddish words and expressions to give a decidedly Jewish spin to their observations and routines.   

As a community, many African Americans have long been offended by the notion that they speak differently from the rest of society.  Some are easily offended when they hear others make a comment about someone else “talking Black.” However, Dr. Baugh estimates that 80 percent of Americans can successfully identify the racial or linguistic heritage of an unseen speaker after hearing only one word, based on a study he conducted in 1999.

According to Dr. Baugh, and other leading linguistic intellectuals, this ability to “track” ethnicity by voice opens the door to linguistic profiling, which often leads to racial or linguistic discrimination.

In his 2003 report, “Black Linguistics – Language, Society, and Politics in Africa and the Americas,” Dr. Baugh cites evidence of linguistic discrimination that was documented by the Washington Post:

“Testers for the (Fair Housing Council of Greater Washington) called more than 60 insurance offices and sought information about renter’s insurance.  In 150 cases, responses to Black and Latino callers were compared with responses to White callers, and 45 percent revealed discrimination…” (S. Horowitz, Washington Post, “Minority Renters Face Insurance Bias,” September 29, 1999, P. B-01

Other studies reveal what can best be described as selective bias, where reactions to accents are not blatantly discriminatory.  “Attitudinal differences are harder to measure,” said Dr. Baugh.  “There’s a more favorable view of some linguistic differences and accents, such as French or British accents.  (Americans) like how (those accents) sound, and will make an extra effort to understand (what’s being said).  They may not like Black, southern or New York accents, so they’ll make less of an effort to understand.”

According to Dr. Baugh, other tests show that certain dialects and accents are viewed as sounding less intelligent, still others are completely dismissed out of hand.  When people are reacting to a speaker’s linguistic heritage, they react more to how the words are being pronounced than to what is being said. 

Another factor that may contribute to discriminatory reactions to language is the perceived contribution or value of a person or ethnic group to the society at large.  While people tend to place blame on the speaker for failing to use preferred language patterns, allowances are often made when the speaker enjoys favored status or is a member of a valued group.  Dr. Baugh noted that no one told Henry Kissinger, the former U.S. Secretary of State and Nobel Peace Prize Laureate, that he needed to sound like Tom Brokaw (the former anchor of NBC Evening News).

For members of less valued groups, the burden is placed on speaker of non-standard English to either alter the way they communicate, or run the risk of having their ideas misjudged, misunderstood, or completely ignored.

The debate about linguistic bias and its consequences has received increased attention lately, as one of the most visible and influential opinion leaders in the African American community jumped into the fray.  In a recent New York Times article, Dr. Henry Louis Gates, world-renown scholar and intellectual, addressed the controversy:

“Mr. (Bill) Cosby got a lot of flak for complaining about children who couldn’t speak Standard English.  Yet it isn’t a derogation of the Black vernacular – a marvelously rich and inventive tongue – to point out that there’s a language of the marketplace, too, and learning to speak that language has generally been a precondition for economic success, whoever you are.  When we let Black youth become monolingual, we’ve limited their imaginative and economic possibilities…These issues can be ticklish, no question, but they’re badly served by silence and squeamishness.” Dr. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., “Breaking the Silence,” New York Times, August 1, 2004

The complicated issues surrounding “Black Talk” aren’t restricted to interactions between Blacks and Whites.  It extends deep into the African American culture where origins and ethnic backgrounds vary as widely as speech patterns and preferences.

“(African Americans have) a unique linguistic heritage,” said Dr. Baugh.  “Slave traders wanted to prevent uprisings, so they separated slaves by language,” he continued.  He noted that there is a difference between foreign-born African Americans, and those who trace their ancestry back to slaves.  Dr. Baugh labels this difference ‘by birth or by choice’ – with the main linguistic difference being that those who came to America by choice were not denied use of their native tongue, nor were they necessarily deprived of a formal education nor required to develop a coded language to shield themselves from their slave masters.  The differences could hardly be greater.

Even among African Americans who trace their ancestry through American slavery, experiences differ greatly by regions.  Educational opportunities were greater in some areas, even during the height of segregation, and forcefully restricted in others.   Consequently, differences in linguistic patterns and customs emerged.

Since affirmative action was introduced into the American education system and in business, a sizeable portion of the Black community has been able to communicate effectively in the language of the marketplace, to borrow a phrase from Dr. Gates. 

While some see that as progress, since the 1980s, there has been a concerted effort on the part of some segments of the Black community to embrace the style of “Black Talk” that evolved in urban centers. 

“Hip Hop has raised the bar in its own way,” said Dr. Baugh.  “(African Americans) haven’t jumped through Standard English hoops (in our music).  If anything, Whites have come to us.  The future should be interesting, from a linguistics standpoint.”

Marketers have also sought to capitalize on the creativity and uniqueness of the urban version of “Black Talk,” which tends to reinforce its prominence within the society.

With the increased globalization of American culture, coupled with the ever-increasing speed of business and technology, tackling linguistic biases and discrimination will likely become more complicated before it gets easier.  However, as Dr. Baugh points out, there are still some silver linings.

“Language, dialects and accents also serve to bind Americans, reminding us of the ancestors who left distant lands to seek their freedom and fortune here,” said Dr. Baugh in his Black Linguistics report of the common linguistic threads that bind us all.  “Whereas racial differences and controversies over affirmation action have tended to divide us, the recognition that most of our ancestors came from lands where English was foreign gives us a common historical bond that has the potential to help reunite America.”

If Dr. Baugh is right, we might discover that we have a great deal to learn from one another.

The End